Consoler Called Nepenthes

That night Telemachus' tears were unbearable. Sadness covered his heart when he knew that his father, Ulysses, had been murdered. Even Menelaus who told the incident was unable to hold back the pain. Seeing that, Helen, Menelaus' wife, made a concoction of wine and herbs. She served it in wine glasses. Miraculously after sipping the drink, Telemachus and Menelaus' sadness were vanish. The consoler concoction is known as nepenthe.
That is the story told in the Odyssey, Homer's Greece heroic legend. Carl Linneaus-a Swedish botanist-might have been inspired by that name when he named nepenthes for the specimen of a pitcher plant which he brought from Sri Lanka in 1737. It was not without a reason that the man who was born in 23 May 1707 took that name.
For botanists and taxonomists, the 1700s era was a gloomy period since there was no spectacular plant found. The presence of the unique kantong semar-other term for nepenthes in Indonesia-revived their spirit again. Moreover, according to Carl, the pocket shape of the pitcher plant-other term for kantong semar-resembles a wine glass. Another version states that nepenthe in the story of Homer's the Odyssey in fact refers to a wine glass name.
Carl is not the first to describe about nepenthes. Previously in 1658, Etiene de Flacourt, A French colony governor in Madagaskar, once told a story about the Nepenthaceae family member. Periuk monyet-monkey cup-which was named amramitico is now known as N. madagascariensis.
Yonder, thousands of kilometer from Madagaskar, H.N Grimm discovered a plant which is synonym with N. madagascariensis. In 1683 the monkey cup was named Planta mirabilis distillatoria which means an amazing distillated plant. At that time it was believed that nepenthes pitcher could distillate water for the human consumption. It happened before nepenthes is known as a carnivorous plant. Now, kantong semar is popular as Srilanka endemic N. distillatoria.
Other term arose from Georgius Everhardus Rumphius. In 1690 the german botanist gave kantong semar which he saw in Ambon, Maluku, Cantherifera mirabilis name. After 79 years embedded by various term, eventually nepenthes is the name chosen to call that pitcher plant hitherto. Many terms
Nepenthes is found all the way from Madagaskar in the west part to Kaledonia in the east part. While in the north, nepenthes is found in South Cina and the southern part of Australia. The most variety is found in South East Asia, particularly in Indonesia. In each location, nepenthes has its own name. In Pahang and Malaka, Malaysia, it is called periuk kera or karik-karik. In Payakumbuh, nepenthes is called katidieng beruak-which means bakul monyet (monkey basket). The people in Riau, Karimun Island, and Bintan Island named it akar manipojong or akar tempayan. The name bayung kera is famous in Palembang. Generally, either tahul-tahul or sibara buai is its popular name in Sumatera.
While in Java, nepenthes is known with the term kantong semar. It might be due to the shape which looks like the pot-belly of Semar-a character in traditional Java puppet story. People in Sunda call it paku sorog or sorog raja mantri. The people of Maluku called it tempayan setan. While in Papua it is called kobe-kobe.
In Kalimantan, each tribe has a different term. The tribe of Dayak Katingan in Central Kalimantan called it ketupat napu. Napu means swamp. Long time ago, the pitchers of plants which live in swamps was often used as ketupat wrapper. Dayak Bakumpai tribe in Barito River, South Kalimantan, named it telep ujung. Ujung is the name of a king, while telep is the name of a cylinder tool made of bamboo. The tool is usually used to store poisonous arrows. Usage
Besides various names, nepenthes also has many usage. In Bangka, the stem of ketakung is indeed used to tighten fence and carry heavy goods. Its dry stem substitute rattan due to its strength and flexibility. It can even last longer than rattan. While in Papua, the clayey stem of kobe-kobe is used as a bracelet.
In Singkawang, West Kalimantan, N. ampullaria is often used to make pulut. The half cooked pulut (sticky rice, ed) is put into the pitcher and then steamed. According to Ir Purwaningsih MSi, N. ampullaria is used because it is a detritus type. 'It means, if it is seen from the pitcher, it eats insect less. It eats foliage,' added Ir Chairani Siregar, MSc.
On the other hand, an opened kantong entuyut is normally used as a toy. In their childhood, Chairani, Purwaningsih, and Ir Agustina Liestiawati, MP-they are lecturers in University of Tanjungpura-often played as water trader. To carry water, they made use of nepenthes pitchers. Other usage of an entuyut pitcher is to be used as an arrow container.
Explorers and hunters in jungles drink from a closed nepenthes pitcher to quench their thirst. In Maluku, the water in periuk kera has been used by the people since Rumphius era in 1690. It was not intended to dampen dry throat, but to dampen Ambon soil. Whenever long dry season came, the village elders went quietly to the jungle. They poured out all water inside the nepenthes pitcher to the ground. By doing so it is believed that the rain would immediately come.
Ancient shamans used the water inside the closed nepenthes pitcher as the potion to prevent children wet the bed. The water is poured onto the head of a child who often wet the bed. The rest is given to the child to drink. Some people are also utilize the water in periuk monyet as a cough medicine and as the potion for swollen eyes.
So the legend in Homer's The Odyssey is true. Nepenthe is indeed the consoler for sadness and pain.

Caricature Plant, The Piles Remover

Caricature plant or handeleum Graphtophyllum pictum has long been known as the cure for piles. Apparently, it can also be utilized as antiinflamation. More than that, handeleum is potential for women who undergo menopause. In fact, this leaf can also lower bad cholesterol content (LDL). In addition, the chemical content of caricature plant is effective to prevent the growth of plague, mutant streptococcus and fungus on artificial teeth.

Horticultural Therapy : Strategies to Prevent Injury and to Minimise Labour in the Garden

Terms like "busting a gut" and "breaking your back" should not come into the equation if you understand how to conduct yourself in the garden.
Working to your capability and degree of mobility
Many horticultural tasks are often physical in action, involving the use of muscles of the back and limbs. Try these strategies:
Do a few warming up exercises.
Always adopt best posture when working - no excessive stretching, bending and turning.
When digging keep your shoulders, hips and feet moving smoothly in the same direction treating your body and shovel as one.
When lifting soil, let your lead foot carry your body forward towards the load, with the shovel close by your side. To move the soil to the left, pivot on the left on the ball of your right foot and point your left foot in the direction you wish to deposit the load.
If it is necessary to lift, correct methods should be used to avoid back injury (i.e. bend knees, keep back straight, keep load to one side of the body (divide the load), and do not twist or move suddenly when carrying. ) Adopt a similar action when picking up tools from the ground. Bend from the knees (and straighten up from the knees as well) and don’t bend from the waist. For better balance, keep one foot a little in front of the other.
Make maximum use of levers. Raking, for example, incorporates the principle of levers. The rake head is the load, your feet the fulcrum. Two alternatives can improve one’s performance in raking: (1) lightening the rake head to lessen the load, or (2) lengthening the lever or handle to improve the leverage. When raking, most of the effort is placed on the back, with one often leaning forward and using one’s back to extend the handle. To transfer much of the energy from the back to the arms and legs, rake from the side to the centre of the body with a gentle pulling action. People suffering from back strain, should practice working side on to their work, rather than as if they were facing the work. Prevent yourself from raking to the front of the body or stretching your back to extend the rake’s range. Move the legs to rake further afield rather than extend your arms.
Where there is work to be done at bench height, consider putting one foot up on a small stool or box as this causes the back and thigh to form an angle of about 135 degrees and minimizes stress on the back. Work benches need to be built to the correct height, usually 50-100cm below the height of the elbow, to reduce bending. Similarly, seating for working should be comfortable to reduce the strain of standing in one position for too long. If you are elderly or disabled, work only for short periods only, and rest frequently.
Re-design the landscape and tasks to minimize labour
Although working in the garden provides good exercise, often there are tasks which can be made easier to enable you to put time into other more interesting aspects of gardening. For example:
Retain leaf debris on the garden beds as mulch and pick up fallen leaves on lawns with the mower. Mulches protect plants, conserve soil moisture, and save on extensive weeding.
When weeding and cultivating are necessary, devise easier ways to weed. For example, wait for the right weather to condition the soil, leave weeds to die in the sun, and provided there are no persistent seed heads, or propagules, add the weeds to the mulch.
Aerate the soil without digging by using a fork.
Encourage the no-dig gardening concept.
Make good compost to avoid unnecessary digging.
Consider raised beds, or containers, which allow gardening at bench height for those with chronic back problems, .
Installing hard landscape surfaces may limit the extent of lawn, but will improve access to many parts of the garden. The photograph above shows how satisfactory hard surfacing enables improved access and movement. The entrance is sloped for easy access, handrails for balance, and there is provision for a shaded rest area.
Careful plant selection can also make gardening easier. Select plant materials for their predictable growth rates, requirements for little or no pruning, staking, watering, or fertilizing, and for their tolerance to pests and diseases.

Reclaiming the Roofscape - a natural solution

The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) at its City Campus, is reclaiming one of its rooftop spaces to create a roofscape which is guided by principles of ecological sustainability. The project is a joint administration and student initiative which has grown out of a desire by users of the roofspace to enhance the educational, amenity and ecological value of the university campus by provision of a nature experience in a highly urbanised space - the Melbourne CBD.
The broad aims of the project are to foster a sense of investment in the campus, add to the biodiversity of the region, use otherwise under-utilised space and to provide a model of sustainability that has educational value. Campus stewardship initiatives such as this can provide an important training ground for students to become advocates for environmental responsibility in their vocational fields and more generally engender a broader sense of civil responsibility.
The project will integrate academic involvement through curricular activities in a range of diverse disciplines including environmental science, visual communications and mechanical engineering. The students and other users of the roofscape have been and will continue to be actively involved in all stages and aspects of the roofscape development concept, design, implementation and management.
The roofspace covers approximately 1500m² on the fourth floor of two buildings constructed in 1937 and 1942 and is bordered by a waist high parapet. (See left). The buildings are predominantly sited on the corner of Franklin St and Bowen St within the City Campus. Of the roof space, about 900m² is currently occupied by temporary buildings housing office, academic and student space and includes a Muslim prayer room. Long term plans seek to relocate many of these buildings which will allow further development of the roofspace. The remaining 600m² is located predominantly on the 1937 building on Bowen St and it is this area which is subject to the initial phase of the development.
The main features of the roofscape include: * flowering indigenous planting * alternative power to run irrigation and lighting * a board walk through the grassland * planters for trees and climbers * Koori food and implement plants * interpretative signage * a glasshouse for propagation * furniture * open space events * spaces for art installations
The flowering indigenous grassland planting, creating an inherently Australian sense of place, is the principle vegetation component of the landscape. This planting will cover approximately 80m², will be grown in a shallow profile of 200mm depth and will place minimum weight in the roofspace. (Engineering assessments of the buildings have identified the structural capacity showing several zones with a range of weight bearing capacities.)
The grassland will provide an indigenous community which will be ecologically based, subject to successional processes, require minimal inputs in respect to nutrients, water and labour resources compared to traditional plantings. The style of planting will provide users of the landscape with a functioning plant community which brings the natural cycles of nature into the urban landscape and provides habitat for local fauna. The grassland will function in an interpretative role for the original flora of the Melbourne area, will conserve genetic resources and will perform soundly in biological terms in the rooftop environment.
Containers with attached frames planted with climbers will provide screening for discreet areas such as the Muslim prayer room and along the parapets, linking visually with the streetscape. Large planters will support tree planting of Sheoke. Species selection has in part been driven by the need to utilise species which will grow in the exposed conditions of the rooftop.
One of the keys to utilising shallow profile plantings is effective supply of water. The irrigation system has been designed to minimise water usage by using moisture sensors which will determine the volume of water applied and prevent over-usage. The system will be further developed to utilise water captured from surface runoff and recycled via power generated by alternative technologies.
Various components of the landscape have been chosen because of their adherence to sustainability principles and for appropriateness to the site. The medium chosen is Debco Landscaper Mix, a light weight medium which is primarily composed of by-products from mining and forestry industries. The base mix is composed of 60% composted pine bark, 30% basalt dust and 10% brown coal fines.
Nutrient levels post establishment will be monitored through academic projects and maintained at low levels. This will decrease the potential for rank growth of competitive species in the grasslands site and maintain space for the inter-tussock flowering native forbs. The low growth rates will decrease maintenance requirements and favour persistence of indigenous species. Medium and fertility levels will be maintained through incorporation of composted material and output from worm farms.
Management of the site will be undertaken in part by a “Friends of the Roofscape Group”.
In the urban centres of Australia, rooftops are a significant untapped resource. RMIT has recognised that the development of rooftops into places that provide a nature experience in often hard, hostile, alien environments can enhance human well-being, build a sense of community and a relationship with nature and provide models of sustainable living practices in urban spaces.

The Implications for Garden Design of Medium-Density Inner-Suburban Living

The move to higher housing density in inner-suburban areas in Australian cities has significant implications for the way we design gardens in these areas. This month we spoke to Ruth Beilin about some design solutions for these small spaces.
What are the major implications for garden design of increasing housing density in inner-suburban areas?
First we have to put the situation into context to see the major changes that are taking place. In inner suburban Melbourne for instance, we are moving from a situation where we had 15 houses per hectare to a situation where there will be 45 houses per hectare. Where there was one residence before, there will now be three.
This means a great change in how gardens fit into the overall context. Most fundamental of all is a huge change of scale. Previously most gardens contained large trees (albeit often too large for the space), but with these changes, there will little room for trees except in the streetscape.. What we will most likely see will be the use of shrubs pruned as trees. I expect that we will see a strong emphasis on small deciduous exotic species, or, dare I say it, miniature conifers. We desperately need indigenous nurseries to fund plant breeding research and selection, so the available plant spectrum is extended.
The other major change is likely to be a move to increased use of hard surfacing. Unfortunately many of the current villa designs appear to require a large amount of car access, which means there is little space left and perhaps no private space at all. All the common space may be transition space - used for moving through rather than as a focus in itself. I think we have to rethink how we use hard surfacing in these areas. One solution is to meld the ground plane and the vertical plane - perhaps run similar surfacing materials up the walls. This has the effect of symbolically pushing out the space and making it more than a transition zone and part of the livable space.
Should design be bold or subdued in a small space?
Design is very dependent on the surrounding architecture, but many of the new styles do not lend themselves very well to replication in the garden. The big challenge in these small gardens is to find a sense of place. Once you've determined what it is, I think you should set about dramatising it. The garden can be bold or subdued depending on the mood you wish to create. Careful selection of plant material can help reflect the mood. It is often best to confine your plant choice to a limited range of plants. You might, for example choose bold, dramatic plants in the style of Roberto Burle Marx and treat them like living sculptures. Plants like Papyrus and Strelitzia come to mind. Alternatively you could choose a selection of ferns and let their patterns and textures create a feeling of peacefulness.
How can you create the illusion of space in a small area?
The most effective way of increasing the sense of space is to make use of glass walls that extend the garden into the house and vice versa, thus making use of the 'borrowed landscape'. Depth can also be created by careful choice of wall colours - white gives the appearance of extending space and interestingly, a matt black on a corner wall, can suggest shadow and the illusion of on-going depth.
Another possibility is to make use of reflective pools. Even if the space only allows for a still pool that runs along the bottom edge of a wall, it will add depth to the space. Running water, too, can create this effect. Small gardens often lend themselves to contemporary style water features that sit flat against a wall, but bring light and movement into the space.
Courtyards can be difficult because the walls often create deep shade, except for a burst of hot sun in the middle of the day (especially in summer). What is the best way to deal with this?
Firstly it is important to choose plants that have the environmental tolerance to deal with these conditions. I think you have to live with the fact that these areas will be largely shaded. You can create shade structures easily in a small area and this may be the best solution for the midday sun - areas of hard surfacing can get very hot.
Courtyards also lend themselves to container gardening and once again I must emphasise the importance of the vertical plane. Containers can actually be built into the walls at different heights. Walls themselves need to be reassessed. Traditionally, walls have tended to be made of materials that discouraged people from leaning against them. In such small spaces walls need to be friendlier and part of the living space. They need to be part of the whole design.
I think we can make much better use of wall colour, and not just use invisible colours. Coloured galvanised iron can be used very effectively. The Sante Fe gardening style is a good example of the use of colour. Often in these gardens you will see a courtyard tiled in rich ochres, purples and midnight blues. Two of the walls might be white and the other picks up the wonderful deep colour. It's very exciting.
We can use plant materials in exciting ways too, to give walls texture and life. Plants like Hedera helix and Ficus pumila will cover walls. I like the idea of areas being cut into the foliage and three dimensional tiles hung on the wall - the wall becomes a feature wall.
The important thing in a small space like a courtyard is that there must be a great attention to detail. Care must be taken with edging and transition zones. Ornamentation and furniture must be kept to scale. A six-seater wooden table setting is unlikely to be an appropriate choice in a small courtyard. Something structurally finer would suit the scale of the area much better.

Tales from the Wider Landscape

The Global Garden extends out from the fringes of the city to the wider landscape where the agricultural character of the work has shaped and organised its borders. In the last ten years in Australia, the rise of the Landcare movement, programs supported through Greening Australia, Save the Bush, A Billion Trees and countless others, have encouraged us as a nation to reconsider our vision for the 'sunburnt' landscape.
At Burnley, research projects concerned with this area of applied ecology focus on the experience of local people, principally farmers, who are variously restoring or creating our rural landscapes of tomorrow.
The emphasis in many of these plantings has been on trees and shrub establishment. Local Landcare groups have encouraged a local nursery trade, as the groups demand for indigenous and locally selected plant material increases. There has been a huge revolution in the bush as evidenced in the shelterbelt plantings. Early plantings in southwest Gippsland Victoria, for example, often include species from Western Australia and Queensland. There was little information available to the farmers when they made their selections, and things like tolerances, mature height and adaptability were not usually prioritised. However farmers quickly noticed that once they fenced out an area for planting, regeneration often occurred from previously dormant seedbanks within these sites. The regenerating material tended to be shrub-tree acacia species and local eucalyptus species. Usually, this self-perpetuating material quickly outgrew the nursery acquired stock.
Farmers, looking for similar plant material on their landscapes, recognised the road verges, gullies and remnant reserve areas as existing seed nurseries, and many Landcare groups began collecting their seed from within their local areas. Local nurseries responded by widening the available stock of local material. During the Farmcare project in the Leongatha area, local Landcare groups applied for a grant to set up a seed storage facility. Here they kept the local seed stock viable and available for groups in the area. This facility has continued under the auspices of the South Gippsland Landcare Network.The attention to acquiring local seed also led farmers to developing adaptable methods of direct seeding rather than being solely dependent on tube stock plantings. Direct seeding creates what farmers describe as a more 'natural' appearance to the plantation sites. It can be easier to seed and faster to establish. However, for many farmers, it is not a practical possibility because of the steepness of their terrain. Some innovative work using slurries and mulching in the direct application of seed has occurred, with mixed results overall.
The locations of the new or regenerating 'bush' have largely been on the edges of the pasture and cropping areas. Landscape corridors, created in 'fencing out' stream access; unworkable or low productivity gullies; erosion sites and slips, have provided 'land out of production' for revegetation projects. These new 'conservation zones' continue to grow in size and quality. Farmers seek to link corridors and gullies to roadsides, and to similar areas on neighbouring land, both public and private.
The management of these burgeoning bush areas becomes the next focus for concern both on-ground among farmers and with researchers at Burnley. The Landcare funding has been largely targeted at the establishment of these plantings. The reality of their growth in the landscape presents new issues to farm managers. It is here that horticultural expertise is most needed as the reality of planting trees in severely modified and largely degraded landscapes attest. The two hundred years of white settlement and cultivation often mean that the conditions in which the farm plantings occur are as difficult as any streetscape in the urban centres. Further, the farm management agenda and labour force rarely include the time to 'nurse' plantations, or to modify the management of the agricultural landscapes that abut these new 'bush' plantings.
Recent research in this area used photography in a project that involved participating Landcare farmers photographing their significant landscapes. The individual's relationship to his/her land provided insights to the location of conservation areas and reinforced the importance of the socio-economic imperative within Landcare. Current research initiatives involve the testing of the Stream Index on Water Quality along riparian plantings in the Archie's Creek area. Possible outcomes from this research include suggestions to improve or consolidate the design and layout of these corridors. At a postgraduate level, a system for farmer-based monitoring and evaluation of on-ground works is underway in the Powlett Catchment in Victoria. In central New South Wales, an investigation into the creation of sanctuaries on private land includes evaluating the process by which bettongs are to be reintroduced into that landscape.
The need for horticultural research, as applied ecology, in landscape management and in the design of integrated production and conservation landscapes of the future is an important thrust of the program in Environmental Horticulture and Resource Management at Burnley.

A Grapevine in Every Garden

Early Sydney resident, James Busby, had a view of a perfect life in which one was able to sit beneath one's own grapevine and enjoy its fruits at one's leisure. While this may not necessarily accord with everyone's view, the grapevines (genus Vitus) do offer many possibilities to the average gardener, particularly in the temperate regions.
The best known member of the genus is Vitis vinifera, the common grape. This species has thousands of varieties, mostly grown for fruit. The home vine's fruit will either be eaten fresh, or possibly fermented to make wine. Perhaps a word or two on varieties is appropriate here. For fresh consumption, large-berried seeded varieties are probably the best domestic choice. (The seedless varieties seen in your greengrocer require great skill in their growth and the large berries they have, require specialist producer skills.) A good choice is `Italia', a white muscat-flavoured grape which will ripen in late March/early April in a coolish climate like that of Melbourne. If you can find plants, an alternative is the Australian-bred black grape, 'Marroo'. This seedless variety has relatively large berries and is usually resistant to the main problem diseases of grapes - downy mildew and powdery mildew. One vine of a table grape variety should yield enough fruit to keep the average consumer supplied for a couple of weeks.
However, if your thoughts were of wine production, you may need a larger planting. You could expect to pick 2-4kg from a vine (which will make 1-2 litres of wine) - however, to get a decent ferment going, you probably need at least 50kg of fruit. So, unless you are prepared to turn over the entire yard to production, your dreams of self-sufficiency may not eventuate.
Most standard wine grape varieties are pretty adaptable in terms of location, but stay away from later ripeners like Shiraz or Cabernet Sauvignon in places with cooler summers (like coastal Victoria.)
The major bugbear with Vitus vinifera varieties is their susceptibility to leaf diseases, particularly in moist climates. This limits their usefulness in the tropics and many coastal areas unless you are prepared to spray regularly. There are some disease tolerant species however. From North America comes V. lubrusca which has quite handsome foliage. The fruit is good for jellies but has a strong “tropical” flavour which some people have problems with (but others enjoy.) A common old variety is 'Isabella' which was a popular backyard variety in NSW and Queensland and is occasionally seen in Melbourne.
Purely ornamental species include the Asian species Vitus coignetiae (Glory Vine) with its handsome foliage and good autumn colour, and the common ornamental grape vine with its red autumn colour. The ornamental grape is a hybrid between V. vinifera and an American species and is thought to have been bred in France late last century. Glory Vine prefers cool, moist climates, but the ornamental grape is much tougher and does well in a range of climates from hot and dry to cool and moist.
The grapevines, being deciduous, are ideal for providing summer shade and winter sun. With a bit of work, you can have fruit as well, but if you're looking just for the shade without the disease problems (or fighting the local birds for the fruit), try one of the ornamental species.
About the writer: Dr Peter May is Deputy Head of Campus at Burnley College. His special interests include soil science, turf management and viticulture.
POSTSCRIPT: Re: Maroo and powdery mildew. I have had a message from Bill Lewis of CSIRO Horticulture Division at Merbein regarding one of my comments about the CSIRO-bred tablegrape Maroo. Bill has put the case that in their experience, Maroo is sensitive to powdery mildew and needs treatment to prevent the disease. It has been our experience that in Melbourne Maroo doesn't get anything like the problems with powdery that say Chardonnay or Pinot noir can have (and our vineyard at Burnley has pretty high PM pressure) and my comments were largely based on that experience.I will keep an eye on things this spring and summer and see if we have been missing something. If anyone has experience of growing the grape in question and can add to the debate I would be very happy to hear from them.- Peter May

Legionella - how serious is the threat?

We talk to Brian Shields about the dangers posed by the existence of Legionella in potting mix, garden soils, compost and other organic materials used in horticulture.

Nurseries have been advised to take steps to protect their staff and customers from the threat of exposure to Legionella in organic products. How serious is the threat?
Legionella organisms are very widespread in the natural environment. However when conditions change to provide a suitable environment, concentrations of Legionella can increase to levels where they may pose a serious threat, especially to vulnerable individuals.
Any situation where organic material is warm and damp will encourage the production of Legionella spores. Heaps of chipped tree prunings provide a perfect environment. The warmth created by decomposition favours the growth in numbers of the bacteria. It’s important to remember that the threat is not just to nursery personnel, but to anyone who handles organic materials - and that includes domestic compost. A well-known television personality, for example, contracted the disease from his backyard compost heap.
Legionella causes a disease similar to pneumonia and the potential death rate of people who contract the disease is between 13% and 15%. The most common way of transmitting the disease is from hand to mouth, so washing hands carefully after dealing with organic materials is very important. In the Burnley nursery, we encourage students to wear disposable gloves. However it has just in the last week been brought to my attention that some regular users of disposable gloves (eg in the health industry), develop latex sensitivity over time, so this is something we will need to research further. For anyone who handles these materials regularly, leather gloves are a good idea.
Organic material may contain many latent Legionella spores. When the material becomes dry and dusty, the spores are easily inhaled. When handling this material, steps should be taken to dampen it down to reduce dust. This also applies to domestic potting mix - keep it damp. People who are most susceptible to infection are asthmatics, smokers, diabetics and anyone with chronic lung disease or who are HIV positive. These people should wear face masks when handling organic materials. The disease is more likely to affect elderly or middle-aged people and those whose immune systems are weak eg if they have, or are recovering from, some other illness.
Why have these materials only recently been recognised as potentially hazardous? Has anything changed?
The main thing that has changed is that infection with Legionella is now more likely to be recognised. In the past, people who were infected were most likely diagnosed as having some other disease. The early symptoms are very similar to that of flu - fever, chills, cough, aching muscles, headache, tiredness, loss of appetite and diarrhoea. If the infection is caught early enough, it is treatable, so it is very important to mention to your doctor that you have been handling organic materials such as potting mix, compost or soil, if you are presenting with some, or all, of these symptoms.
The other thing that has changed in the horticultural industry is the move in the last 15 - 20 years to soil-less growing media which is largely based on organic materials. Where these materials continue to decompose and generate heat, Legionella is likely to multiply.
What nursery procedures can be employed to reduce the incidence of Legionella?
A high level of nursery hygiene is important in reducing the incidence of all forms of bacteria. Pasteurising potting media used for cuttings and seed propagation and tubing up is common nursery practice to reduce the incidence of bacteria and other pathogens.
Care with storage of organic-based materials is important. The materials should not be stored for extended periods. They should be kept aerated and prevented from getting dusty.
However the most important thing is that individuals take responsibility for their own safety and not adopt a cavalier attitude. This is particularly important for people who fall within the high risk group.

A pear by any other name.....

Over the last 10 years, flowering pears have become increasingly popular, both in south-eastern Australia and throughout the world. Probably these trees are so widely used because of their moderate stature (typically under 6 metres), intense spring flowering, glossy summer foliage and excellent autumn colour. In the United States, many named selections of the species Pyrus calleryana have been released showing differing forms, adaptability to low winter temperatures, and leaf form.
In Australia, things are somewhat different. Since the early 1970's, most people associate the species Pyrus ussuriensis, or “Manchurian Pear” with flowering pears. This plant first appeared in the catalogue of Bert Chandler and Sons Nursery, located at the base of the Dandenong Ranges in eastern Victoria. This plant was widely propagated (typically by budding onto a rootstock selection of Pyrus calleryana), and may have formed the basis for the plantings found in Canberra and the eastern suburbs of Melbourne.
At Burnley College, we have a planting of about eight of these trees in our quadrangle area. As these trees matured, we noticed that they didn't match the descriptions of P. ussuriensis found in the literature. We decided to look further, and found that none of the trees in the eastern streetscapes matched the “official” descriptions found in flora orother publications. With the help of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and other herbaria throughout Australia, we were able to determine that the tree sold as “Manchurian Pear” was not P. ussuriensis at all. What is sold here is obviously a form of P. calleryana. We are not certain how the names became mixed, or what cultivar of P. calleryana we may have. A more exact description of this plant can only be developed through chemotaxonomic techniques.
This information is extremely important, since the common “Manchurian Pear” of south-eastern Australia grows differently from true P ussuriensis. The “Manchurian Pear” we are growing has extremely poor branch attachment, making it a liability for many landscapes. Recently we have noticed that many of the “Manchurian Pears” in the Melbourne landscape show evidence of splitting or limb loss. Here at Burnley, two of our trees have split completely, with the remainder showing evidence of extremely poor form.
Until known Pyrus ussuriensis trees are available from nurseries, we recommend planting the two named varieties of P. calleryana currently available. These selections, 'Red Spire' and 'Bradford' are better-formed trees for the Australian landscape. Soon, true P. ussuriensis will be available, along with additional P. calleryana selections. If we're lucky, we may also soon have the Australian-selected form 'Claremont' available from the Waite Arboretum.

Foliar Feeding - Fact or Fiction?

Providing plants with nutrients remains a great mystery to many horticulturists. The many options available (inorganic or organic?, soluble or slow release?, different nutrient combinations or ratios?, soil or foliage applied?) make decision making difficult. In this article I thought I would look at one of the components of this problem, that being the question "Can a plant absorb nutrients through its leaves and is this a viable option for gardeners to use?" Like the answers to many other horticultural queries, the answer to this one is a qualified yes. Plants can absorb nutrients through their foliage but not in great quantity and sometimes not very quickly. Despite those limitations, foliar feeding is sometimes worthwhile to consider.
The usual uses of foliar fertilizer is in trace element nutrition where the plant does not require large quantities of the nutrient in question. Since many trace element problems occur as a result of unfavourable soil conditions (for example high soil pH), foliar applications can sometimes be more effective than applying the fertilizer to the soil. Examples of nutrients which can be applied in this case are zinc, manganese, copper and molybdenum. As an example, an application of molybdenum to cauliflower to overcome whiptail disorder would be 0.25 g ammonium or sodium molybdate per litre of water, applied as a spray early in the growth of the crop. This spray will be held on the foliage more effectively if a wetting agent is included in the spray (because of the waxy nature of the leaves). Given that many trace elements can become toxic if excess is applied, the use of any trace element fertilizer should be based on an accurate diagnosis of a problem rather than an application, "just in case".
Nitrogen is also readily absorbed by leaves and foliar fertilizing can be used to supply nitrogen. Urea is the best source of nitrogen for foliar use and many commercial products use urea as their nitrogen source. Check the fertilizer product label if you are not sure. If you are using pure urea as a foliar fertilizer, make sure it has the impurity biuret at no more than 0.4%. Again, this will be stated on the label. A foliar spray mixture for general use is 10 g urea and 30 g potassium nitrate per litre of water. For sensitive plants, use this at half strength. A wetting agent will be useful if the leaves are waxy. To supply all of a plant’s nitrogen needs through the leaves will require several applications because of the amount that a plant takes up, but foliar feeding can be a way of getting rapid absorption taking place. Should any of the spray fall onto the soil then it will behave as any other fertilizer and ultimately be absorbed by the roots.
One issue which one also has to consider here is that some elements are only absorbed into leaf tissue very slowly. In these cases, foliar fertilizing is unlikely to be of any real use. Two important examples of this are the elements iron and phosphorus. This is something of a pity as both of these elements can become unavailable in soil through unfavourable soil conditions.
So, in summary, foliar fertilizing of plants is possible, but I am inclined to suspect that in most circumstances conventional means of providing nutrients are more logical solutions.

Gardens without plants?

Recent trends in garden design indicate that plants are increasingly regarded as being of lesser importance than built features and hard surfacing. What implications does this have for our urban environment? What can be done to ensure that our gardens remain green? This month we asked both Michael Green and Geoff Olive for their opinions on this issue.

Michael Green:
The move towards gardens that feature fewer plants is undeniably a trend, as evidenced in garden shows and the media, particularly the glossy magazines. It is not however a trend that I would regard with any anxiety. Gardens which feature plants are made by gardeners who enjoy plants and I don’t believe we are in any danger of running out of such people.
Part of the interest in gardens with fewer plants is undoubtedly fuelled by trends in urban development and lifestyle choices. Higher density living and busier lives tends to encourage gardens with more built elements and fewer plants. Such gardens are easier to maintain, are more appropriate to certain lifestyles than a traditional garden, and are more accommodating of high density living.
The attraction of built gardens is however much more than a reaction to urban development trends and new lifestyle choices. Design of our immediate environment reflects something of the way in which we see ourselves and the values to which we aspire. Gardens with a strong built element are generally more extroverted and expressive than the traditional garden. They strive towards an immediately apparent individualism and the best of them demonstrate an understanding of garden history and the place of shape, form, colour and texture in the garden. History abounds with examples of gardens which valued built elements as much as plants. It is apparent in many Renaissance gardens, Islamic gardens, Modernism and even some aspects of the English garden tradition.
City gardens are also generally reflective of architectural trends. Contemporary urban architecture with its accent upon bold shapes, colours and textures is not generally complimented by a densely planted garden. Instead, it favours the use of similar shapes, patterns and textures in the garden and the use of a sparer, more dramatic style of planting. Hence the popularity of yuccas, palm and mondo grass to name but a few of the staples of this style of gardening.
One of the problems of contemporary design is the victory of style over substance in garden design. The backyard blitz school of garden design would have us believe that we can throw together a variety of elements and plants chosen from some standard patterns and immediately create a garden "effect". In my experience the impact and appeal of such gardens is short lived and encourages constant make-overs in gardens as image conscious owners attempt to keep up with the latest trend.
Personally I am more interested in good design rather than whether or not a garden contains a certain quota of plants. In this regard it is interesting to note that a planted garden can be much more forgiving than a built one. Plants have a certain capacity to absorb a designer’s mistakes where built elements in the garden are unforgiving in their demonstration of the shortcomings of the design. Unfortunately we see far too many poor copies of a glossy magazine feature where a poor understanding of the original design intent or an inability to use built materials skilfully shows up the limitations of the design.
Some people find the extreme, plant-free designs boring and inhuman. Can we influence people to use more plants in their gardens? Probably not. It is unlikely that these choices are made through lack of information about how to use plants wisely, and to fight against it is like trying to push water uphill. People make a conscious choice to have a built garden and the trend is here to stay in some urban areas. If people are really interested in the cultivation of plants, they won't choose to live in these environments.
In response to the concern about low plant usage in landscape design, MIFGS and Flemings have changed their brief for the 2002 Melbourne International Flower and Garden Show design competition. With the theme "Living Masterpieces", designs will be required to have a minimum of 40% plant life. This is encouraging designers to use plants almost in a painterly way - almost like nineteenth century Impressionism. This is an interesting and positive way to bring plants back into landscape design.
About Michael Green: Michael is a landscape architect and lectures in design and graphics at Burnley College. He conducts an ongoing experiment in his own suburban garden attempting to find the right balance between garden structures and plants. To date he has had little success in resolving this dilemma but it does keep him active and the neighbours guessing.

Geoff Olive:
This design trend is something that has emerged from the move towards higher density urban living. It is really a town planning issue rather than a design issue and in some areas it is a disaster. Where there are housing developments with houses cheek by jowl, there is almost nothing left for gardens. In these situations it is critical that people stop and really assess their environment. Small spaces can still be green spaces.
Unfortunately many people do not have a clue about what plant choices are available to them. Many people imagine that growing a tree in a small space is not feasible because when they think of a tree they think of a Tasmanian Blue Gum rather than a Flowering Cherry. There are small trees that grow to less than 5m tall, or even multi-stemmed shrubs pruned as trees, that can provide form and shade protection with excellent results. It is all about achieving the appropriate scale in the vegetation to match the size of the garden space.
People need to be given some directions about plant choices. Some of the public utilities such as Melbourne Water offer low-cost mulch to the public, but they should combine this with suggestions for easy care, water-saving plants that can give a good result. There are some excellent planting examples in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens where succulents and native plants such as paper daisies have been used to illustrate the pleasing combination of textures, forms, shapes and colour combinations that are readily achievable. Giving people examples of what they can do is valuable.
Plants need not be difficult. I think it is unfortunate that gardening is often portrayed by the media as a chore akin to washing the car, rather than the "great escape" it can offer. Good plant choices and garden designs that offer suitable and appealing plant structure (as opposed to the obligatory "Backyard Blitz"-style built feature) can result in a garden that is just as easy to care for as the more uninspiring options, such as ivy and gazanias, but is much more environmentally and emotionally pleasing.
About Geoff Olive: Geoff has retired from his position as full-time lecturer in residential design at Burnley College, but continues to lecture on a part-time basis. His plans to establish a B&B in the near future will undoubtedly include a plant-filled garden.

The Use of Recyclable Products for Horticultural Purposes

While in the past, emphasis has been placed on the collection of recyclable materials, the challenge of the future is to find appropriate uses for the products of recycling. We spoke to Oliver Pohls who is conducting research at Burnley College, Institute of Land & Food Resources, Melbourne University into possible materials that can be used to create ‘sustainable soils’.

1. Can you explain briefly what your research has entailed?
My research has involved investigating a variety of recyclable products, both from domestic and industrial sources. The materials examined are basalt dust, clay tailings, food waste, municipal waste, local council green waste and sewerage sludge.
The individual components were blended together using various proportions of each and the final blends were tested under the guidelines within the Interim Australian Standard - Soils for landscaping and garden use (AS4419 (Int) - 1996).
The aims of this research into ‘sustainable soils’ are to identify possible soil media components, establish their properties and assess the performance of particular blends and combinations. This study is limited to a certain degree, as any one of these objectives are in themselves extensive research projects. The term ‘sustainable’ alone suggests many areas of research, especially the estimations of cash values placed on environmental factors that are deemed environmentally progressive.
Despite these concerns, the investigation of using by-products, waste products and recyclable materials as soil substitutes contributes to the overall integrated approach to resource recovery, higher quality soil blends and environmentally beneficial practices. Some of the benefits include: reducing landfill by waste avoidance, waste reduction and waste reuse and also minimising the removal of diminishing topsoil resources for relocation and its accompanying environmental impact.
2. From your research so far, which area of recycling appears to hold the most promise for horticultural applications?
While all the materials tested have potentially desirable properties, they all seem to have limitations also. For instance while the clay slurry was very beneficial in improving the soil structure and nutrient levels, its high pH meant that it limited the growth of some plants ie acid-loving plants.
While sewage sludge was excellent for reducing dispersibility (which is a useful anti-erosion feature of soils and also prevents soils from drying rock-hard or cracking when dry) the high zinc and copper levels are problematic. If the pH falls too low, these elements may become toxic to plants.
In my trials, composted municipal wastes returned the highest growth rates in the plants (silverbeet), but this material (like all the organic components) requires constant testing and monitoring because it is so diverse. The growth rates from the composted food wastes were not as vigorous as the other organic treatments and the material had a strong odour. Incidentally the sewage sludge did not smell at all.
3. Many councils are now separately collecting green waste and recycling it as garden mulch. How much of a threat does this pose in terms of spreading plant diseases and weeds?
The threat is significant if the material is not properly composted and matured. The composting process takes 2-3 months. To kill off known pathogens and weeds the compost needs to be above 55 degrees Celsius for 3 days. Ongoing research is still seeking to establish whether all pathogens and weeds are killed at this temperature. (Weeds came up in the all the composted materials I was supplied for the trials.)
It is a cause for concern that where the composting is placed in the hands of private contractors, the appropriate procedures may not be followed. All workers involved in the process need to be educated about how the composting process works.
4. How should green waste be treated?
Handreck & Black (1994) suggest the following:
Green waste must be mulched
The moisture content should be between 50 and 65%
The heap must be turned 1-3 times a week initially and then turned whenever the temperature of the heap falls below 45 degrees C or rises above 60 degrees C.
All material must spend 3 days in the interior of the heap at 55 degrees C
Active composting takes about 8 weeks. After this the compost should be cured for about 1 month so as to enable the formation of more humus and the conversion of ammonium to nitrate.
The compost should be screened.
In regards to the length of composting time some companies suggest three weeks is enough.
5. What are the major issues involved in the recycling of sewage for horticultural purposes?
The high metal content mentioned before is a problem as is the level of soluble salts. It is possible to stabilise the heavy metals by keeping the pH at high levels i.e. pH 7 and above. However, soil conditions may change over time and we do not know what will happen with the metals, they may come back into solution and be taken up by plants or leached. Sewage sludge is not used in urban landscape applications in Victoria at the moment, though it is used in NSW. The EPA may review its use in Victoria next year.
Other issues include the public perception of using sewage sludge in public areas. I’m not sure whether the public would find it acceptable. Certainly, correct composting procedures are essential if pathogens are to be reduced to safe levels. If the compost is not adequately aged, then smell will be a limiting factor on its use. The high phosphorus content of sewage sludge may pose a problem for Australian plant species (e.g. Proteacae species) as they have evolved in soils with low phosphorus content.

Strategies to Reduce Bushfire Damage in Gardens

Can garden plant selection significantly reduce the effect of bushfire damage?
There is no doubt that it can. By thinking about the species that you plant and where you plant them - how close to structures such as houses and fences - you can reduce the damage the fire causes. Your decisions will impact on how the fire moves, what actually burns and how much debris will be flying around and this all helps to determine how much damage is done to the property. The topic of how readily hedges burn is very pertinent in Melbourne at the moment with the recent spate of arson attacks on hedges. Many conifers contain large amounts of resin and they go up like torches. In older gardens, you often see large Cupressus macrocarpa (Cypress) hedges up close to houses, even wooden houses, which poses a great risk. Eucalypts often produce oils that vaporise in the heat and they burn with great heat but very quickly. They are a hazard but only for a short time. Some plants are damaged by fire but don’t carry fire well eg some acacias (wattles) and Myoporum (Boobialla) species. These plants will slow up a fire. There are good lists of fire resistant plants in the textbooks. (A short list appear below.)

What other procedures can help reduce bushfire damage to gardens?
Mulch is something else that needs to be considered. You need to think about what kind of mulch you use, how deep it is and how flammable it is. In the Ash Wednesday fires we saw a number of splendid trees that actually survived the fire, but were effectively ringbarked by the ground fire in the mulch.
If you are able to water and keep the mulch moist the flammability is fairly low but a well-aerated mulch consisting of particles of mixed size (eg garden litter and wood chips) that has not been kept watered is very flammable. Unfortunately, bushfire danger is at its worst in times of drought and keeping mulch wet may be impossible. Removing mulch which conserves soil moisture is horticulturally undesirable especially in times of drought, but you need to have thought it through and have some kind of system in place. An option is to use non-organic mulch such as scoria or pebbles, though these may not be desirable from a horticultural or aesthetic point of view. You do need to consider what are the most valuable plants in the garden and take steps to protect those.
The most valuable plants will be the mature trees. These form the basic structure of the garden and will take decades to replace. Mulch should be scraped away from the base of the most vital trees and shrubs. Remember that grafted trees need special protection, because if the tops are severely damaged you may end up with just the rootstock. On the other hand some plants such as acacias regenerate rapidly after a fire and may be sacrificed more readily.
You should also consider what kind of watering system you have and whether it will survive extreme heat. Plastic fittings may melt as the fire approaches, so that the watering system becomes useless. Metal risers and brass fittings may allow you to keep watering your property and reduce damage in the event of a fire.
Other strategies to employ include good old-fashioned garden maintenance - keeping the garden neat and tidy and removing unwanted garden litter that can fuel a fire. Where possible the cutting of a fire-break 3-4 metres wide around the property will also help to slow down an advancing fire.

What immediate post-fire procedures are best to save plants damaged by fire and to encourage regeneration?
The first task is to find out what plants have been irreparably damaged and which are savable. The key to this is knowing your species and their ecology. Tree ferns, for instance, look terrible after a fire because all their fronds are burnt off, but the crowns will recover quite quickly and send out new foliage. Smooth-barked eucalypts are often badly damaged and may not be salvageable, but rough-barked eucalypts often survive. They look awful initially but they have epicormic buds and lignotubers and have evolved to survive bushfires. After the fires at Mount Macedon we came across some giant Redwoods (Sequoia) about to be felled in the clean up. Luckily we knew that these trees are fire resistant and we were able to save them. They recovered and stand out like beacons in the landscape now. We were also able to intervene to save some large rhododendrons which were badly scorched but not burnt. Within twelve weeks of the fire they came into leaf and recovered. It would have taken many years to grow new plants to this size.
Having said all this, it is also important that once trees are identified as being unable to be salvaged, they should be removed immediately while the equipment and help is at hand. Clinging on to hope that dead trees will recover may mean that in 6 months’ time you may be faced with a huge bill to remove the trees at your own expense. If they are very large trees, the bill could be in the tens of thousands of dollars.
Once the salvageable plants have been identified, then the dead bits need to be removed and any questionable bits left until the following spring, when it will become clear whether the branches are still living or not.
It is very important to seek professional help to identify what can be saved in a garden. Burnley graduates are trained to do this. When you consider that the gardens are what often draws people to live in beautiful but fire prone areas, they continue to have great value, even if the house has been destroyed. Quality advice is worth seeking, because it means that valuable plants may be able to be saved.

Profile: Dr Greg Moore is Principal of Burnley College, University of Melbourne. Apart from a general interest in horticultural plant science and ecology, Greg has a specific interest in all aspects of arboriculture. He was the inaugural president of the International Society of Arboriculture, Australian Chapter and continues to serve on the Chapter’s executive committee. He has been a member of the National Trust of Victoria’s Register of Significant Trees since 1988 and has chaired the committee since 1996.
Fire Retardant Plants:Acacia howittiiAcacia iteaphyllaAcacia pravissimaAngophora costataHymenosporum flavumMagnolia grandifloraPhotonia glabraBanksia marginataGrevillea victoriae 'Murray Queen'Myoporum parvifoliumHakea salicifoliaPelargonium peltatum Verbena peruviana

Look Out for Elm Leaf Beetle

Anyone who owns an elm tree will know what beautiful and valuable trees they are. Often a feature in any garden, they are also planted widely in avenues and public gardens throughout temperate Australia. In fact the elm was often used in Avenues of Honour, planted in memory of Australia’s fallen soldiers. These trees cannot be taken for granted though. Pests and disease have wreaked havoc on elms across the Northern Hemisphere. The most serious of these, Dutch elm disease, is not found in Australia. Strict quarantine has allowed Australians to enjoy perhaps the finest population of disease free European elms remaining anywhere in the world. In 1989 however, the elm leaf beetle Pyrrhalta luteola, was discovered damaging elms on Victoria’s Mornington Peninsula. This pest has since spread to the Melbourne metropolitan area and large parts of regional Victoria. Based on the experience in North America, it is anticipated that the elm leaf beetle will eventually spread to all parts of Australia where elms are grown.Will elm leaf beetle kill my tree?The elm leaf beetle will never be eradicated from Australia, however control measures are available which will reduce beetle numbers and prevent serious damage. There is no reason for a well managed elm to be lost due to elm leaf beetle. The elm leaf beetle is sometimes confused with Dutch elm disease but is not nearly as serious, unless of course it’s ignored.Elm leaf beetle. Why is it a threat?The elm leaf beetle has the potential to cause severe defoliation of susceptible elms, which can weaken mature trees and reduce their aesthetic and amenity value. Elms suffering from repeated elm leaf beetle attack are also more susceptible to other pests and disease. Elm leaf beetles commonly overwinter in and around buildings and can cause a nuisance when emerging inside buildings in large numbers during spring.Which elms are affected?Most of the elms planted in Australian streets, parks and gardens are European species including the English elm Ulmus procera, Dutch elm U. x hollandica, golden elm U. glabra "Lutescens", variegated elm U. minor "Variegata", and the weeping elm U. glabra "Camperdowni". Unfortunately all of these elms are susceptible to elm leaf beetle attack. Asian species however such as the Chinese elm U. parvifolia and the closely related Zelkova serrata are relatively resistant to elm leaf beetle. What do I look for?In late summer damaged foliage becomes obvious as adult beetles and larvae feed voraciously on leaves. Look for small holes in the leaves called "shot-holes". Shot-holes are caused by the adult elm leaf beetle. The beetle itself is about 6mm long, oval shaped, with characteristic black and yellow (sometimes olive) stripes. Another type of damage observed at this time of year is known as "skeltonisation". This is caused by the larvae (ie. the grubs) who strip the foliage, leaving only the skeleton of the leaf behind. Skeletonised leaves will turn brown and drop prematurely. A heavy infestation can cause a mature elm to be defoliated by mid-summer.What can I do to protect my elm?Several options are available to the home gardener wishing to protect an elm from elm leaf beetle damage.Non-chemical controlA safe non-chemical control is to trap larvae that migrate down the trunk between mid December and early February. Wrap adhesive tape around the trunk with the sticky side facing out (suitable only if the bark is smooth) or smear sticky gel (available from some nurseries) around the trunk of the elm. Larvae trapped on these bands will be unable to pupate and reach adulthood. These methods may not reduce damage in the initial year of application, but should reduce beetle numbers and damage in subsequent years.Chemical controlMore immediate control can be achieved by applying carbaryl insecticide to the foliage of elms in danger of defoliation. Apply a product containing carbaryl registered to control elm leaf beetle. Apply to the leaves whenever the pest is present. Remember to always read the label first.If your tree is too large to safely spray the canopy contact a pest control operator or tree surgeon (also called an arborist) licensed to apply pesticides. These professionals can discuss the range of services they offer for elm leaf beetle management, and can achieve very good results.Biological controlA spray made of the naturally occurring bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis has been trialed and found to be effective against elm leaf beetle larvae. This spray should become available in the near future. A long-term control for the pest may be the introduction of the elm leaf beetle parasitic fly. This parasite has been tested at Agriculture Victoria’s Keith Turnbull Research Institute against native and beneficial insects and was found to only attack elm leaf beetle larvae. Research is now directed towards importing and establishing this biological control agent in Victoria.

Ballast bill passes House easily but questions linger

As Jeff Alexander of the Muskegon Chronicle reported last week, the first-ever set of national ballast water treatment standards passed with a hefty majority in the U.S. House.
Citizen PatriotA hometown water hole, Center Lake, has been overgrown with Eurasian milfoil, and exotic weed that has made it difficult to swim and fish.As Rep. Pete Hoekstra, R-Holland, said, "invasive aquatic species remain one of the single largest economic and environmental threats to the Great Lakes."
So there is little doubt this was a much-needed homogenization of what had previously been piecemeal standards.
That said, the bill only requires that some freighters obey the standards starting next year. It will take until 2015 for all ships to have on-board treatment systems.
Which brings me to another issues: the worrywart in me has to wonder exactly how these megaton ships will "disinfect" their ballast. Does that open our waters up to high levels of toxic bleaching chemicals? Or will the ships be responsible for holding that water and thus be heavier on the trip back, requiring more fuel?
Or if the water is dumped, do invasive species or water viruses pose other problems for land dumped on?
I've never been a skeptic, and I don't plan to start now. But I'd like to see some fine print on exactly how we're going to combat this problem. And why, if the first invasive species showed up 1988, it will take until 2015 to make the issue no longer an issue.

Frost, freezing damage and mulch

Australian gardening books and magazines often encourage gardeners to insulate their plants with mulch to protect them against frost damage. Would you like to comment on this advice?
While this advice may be appropriate for gardeners in the Northern Hemisphere where the ground freezes in winter, it is not correct advice for most Australian gardeners. In very cold climates, plant desiccation in winter is a major problem. Gardeners are encouraged to water their plants thoroughly just before the ground freezes because moisture is then not available to the roots. Mulching is often recommended to conserve soil moisture. Dormant plants such as rose bushes and grape vines are often completely buried in mulch to protect plant tissues from the extremely cold air and especially cold winds which are also very drying. In these climates the soil temperature may be higher than the air temperature, so the insulating properties of mulch are an advantage. Snow is also an effective insulator. Damage to plant cells is most likely to occur during rapid changes of temperature. Rapid freezing and thawing is much more damaging than a blanket of snow. The plant's natural cold protection mechanism, which involves chemical cellular changes, may not be able to respond quickly enough to cope when weather changes are rapid. (Plants that are frost tender however eg those from tropical climates, will not have these mechanisms and will quickly die from cell damage as a result of cold and frost.) In severe winters, mulch may help to prevent rapid temperature changes, including occasional warm winter sunshine which can cause frozen plant tissues to split.
Conditions are quite different in Australia. Here, the winter sun is consistently quite warm and temperatures rarely drop below -6ºC. The soil absorbs heat during the day and radiates it at night, so reducing the likelihood of frost. Radiant heat is lost most quickly on still, clear nights and frosts are most likely to occur under these conditions. If garden beds are mulched with organic material such as hay, straw, pine bark, compost, etc, the soil is unable to absorb much heat during the day. (Just as mulch keeps soil cooler in summer by blocking solar radiation, in winter the same blocking means there is less stored heat in the soil to prevent frost.) During the night the heat is quickly lost and the surface freezes. This is why you will often notice frost lying on mulch while bare soil is frost-free.
For Australian gardeners, the best way to avoid frost damage is to have soil that is clear of organic mulch and weeds. In frost-prone areas raking mulch away from plant roots in winter will maximise the heat that can be absorbed during the day and radiated at night. Moist soil absorbs more heat than soil that is dry, and soil that is uncultivated absorbs heat more effectively. (If soil is light in texture or if it is 'fluffed-up' by cultivation, the air pockets act as insulation, preventing heat from being absorbed readily.) Bare, moist, compact soil will most efficiently absorb and radiate heat, so protecting plants against frost. Air temperature in such a case can be 1 – 2C higher than mulched or grassed soil. Mulch can then be reapplied once the danger of frost is over. The precautions discussed here are only worthwhile if you are growing plants that are likely to be damaged by the typical frosts your area suffers. If your plants are hardy there is no need to go to this trouble.
Profile: Dr Peter May is Deputy Head of Campus, University of Melbourne - Burnley College. He is a soil scientist with a range of horticultural interests including plant performance in the landscape, turf and viticulture.

Sudden Limb Shear in Trees

What is the major cause of limb shear in trees?
There is no single cause. Limb shear occurs because of a combination of different factors. These include environmental conditions, the age of the tree and species variation. The variation may be within species as well as between different species. You can see a whole paddock of River Red Gums and 48 out of the 50 will be fine and two of them will have fallen limbs all round them. Certainly some species of trees are particularly prone to limb shear.
However the majority of cases are caused by some defect in the union between the limb and the trunk, or some section of the limb adjacent to the trunk. Very often we can see evidence of decay. This may have been caused by something as simple as a cockatoo or possum eating away at the bark, allowing decay to set in. Or perhaps the tree has been subject to environmental limitations, such as drought or compaction, and its ability to repel decay may have been reduced. Sometimes the reasons may go back 10 or 15 years. For example, people forget that 10 years ago, a new water main was put in and half the tree’s roots were severed. Trees are amazing survivors but such things take their toll. Limb shear may be the consequence of actions from years ago.
Having said all that there are still occasions when arborists can find no explanation at all for why limbs fail.
Which species are most vulnerable to limb shear?
Some eucalypts are particularly vulnerable. River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) (see top right), Narrow-leafed Peppermint (E. nicholii), Sugar Gum (E. cladocalyx), Lemon-scented Gum (Corymbia citriodora), Spotted Gum (Corymbia maculata) and Swamp Mahogany (Eucalyptus botryoides) are trees to be watched in particular. Most species of Elm are also prone to limb shear. Ulmus procera and U. x hollandica seem equally likely to do it.
The problem with Swamp Mahogany in the urban situation may go right back to the original genetic stock used for propagation, or the lack of care taken in the nursery to remove problem branches. The problem seems to stem from the morphology of the tree. Because of a condition called "included bark", the branches are typically not very well attached to the tree.
I think it’s important to understand that the eucalypts in the urban situation are quite different to the eucalypts in the forest. Eucalypts in the forest tend to grow straight up as they compete with each other for light. In the urban situation, the trees have more light and consequently, a more extensive canopy and branch structure.
We are currently engaged in research to test the hypothesis that shading of lower branches, or over pruning of branches, may have an influence on their tendency to drop.
What can be done to minimise the danger?
I think it is important to realise it is difficult to predict when a limb will fall. However there are steps that can be taken that will minimise the risk. As trees age, the likelihood of limb shear increases. Old or vulnerable trees should be examined regularly by a professional arborist who needs to climb the tree and examine the limbs closely. Some limbs may need to be removed, or it may be that the whole tree needs removing. Where a limb is aesthetically important, cabling and bracing can be employed, so that if the limb does fail, it will be less likely cause an injury.
About Leigh Stone: Leigh Stone is a full-time arborist, a part time lecturer at Burnley College and is completing his Masters thesis on "Sudden Limb Failure in Trees".

The Essentials of Tree Pruning

Tree pruning is often not well-understood by home gardeners and trees can be damaged by poor pruning techniques. This month we asked Dr Greg Moore to give us some brief guidelines on the essentials of tree pruning.
The first thing to remember is that we only prune ornamental trees when we have to and then we do what we can to minimize the size of the wound. This is to reduce the risk of infection from disease or decay. Wounds on trees do not heal but grow over and our objective is to facilitate the growing over process as best we can.
When a limb is being removed from a tree, we look at the point at which the limb joins the main trunk. The swelling at the base of the branch is called the collar and it is important that pruning cuts are never made into the collar. Instead we cut to the outside of the collar. Often the collar is difficult to see. In these cases we use the branch bark ridge (BBR) as our guide. Every branch has a BBR and this can be seen by noting the change in the angle of the pattern on the bark of the branch compared to the pattern on the main trunk. We make the cut on the branch at the same angle as the BBR.
Another essential technique is to first make a cut on the underside of the branch that is being removed. This cut is made to prevent the bark ripping and tearing as the limb drops. Tearing can open wounds which make it easy for pathogens to enter the tree and hampers growing over.
In the past, gardeners were advised to prune the canopy of trees when they were transplanted to compensate for the loss of roots during the transplanting process. Today we understand that trees need as much foliage as possible to photosynthesise to facilitate the growth of new roots and pruning at transplanting is only recommended where water is the limiting factor. If you keep water up to the tree during the establishment phase, then you will get a much better result if you do not prune the canopy at all when you transplant.

Tree Root Damage

1. Is species selection the best way to minimise root damage in the built environment?
Species selection is undoubtedly the most cost effective way of reducing the potential for damage. Most tree-related building damage occurs where the structures are built on expansive clays, and soil type is the major factor influencing the likelihood of damage occurring.
Damage is most commonly caused by the effect trees have on the moisture movement in the soil. Where tree roots extract large amounts of water, the clay sub-grade may shrink and this can cause structures to crack. The damage is not often caused by direct physical pressure from the roots themselves. However, damage to footpaths, curb and channelling and bitumen is frequently caused by radial growth of tree roots in the immediate environment. Often these provide excellent conditions for root growth - a gravel layer, warmth e.g. from a bitumen car park which vaporises moisture in the soil below to create high humidity. Aggressive tree species soon take advantage of the enhanced conditions to increase their root growth and lifting and cracking occurs.
Some trees are very adept at extracting water and the effect on structures will be particularly noticeable in dry years. Structures which rely directly on the sub-grade for support e.g. brick fences and retaining walls, brick and stone houses, are vulnerable to changes in soil moisture levels which can cause differential movement within the subgrade which can cause cracking of the structure. Timber houses built on stumps are rarely affected.
People should realise that tree removal can also alter the soil moisture. While it might be imagined that removing a tree removes a problem, the truth is that it can create another whole set of problems as the moisture dynamics within the soil are altered.
The Institute of Architects have a list of trees that should be avoided and also provide an inspection service for home buyers who seek professional advice about the potential structural hazards.
2. How effective are root barriers?
Root barriers can be very effective or quite ineffective depending on the circumstances. The effectiveness depends on the site conditions, the type of barrier and how well it is installed.
If the barrier is not installed well and openings are left unsealed for service utilities, then the roots will move through the barrier. While it may be aesthetically desirable to bury the top of the barrier, if you do, you are wasting your time. Most of a tree’s functioning roots are in the top 150mm of soil and almost all of them are in the top 300mm. The roots will simply go over the top of the barrier. This will also occur if the top of the barrier is covered by a concrete slab - the roots will go in between the barrier and the slab.
If the barrier isn’t deep enough the roots will go underneath. The bottom of a barrier needs to be treated with a chemical growth retardant. Positioning of root barriers is also vital. Placement of a barrier close to a tree may remove up to 40% of the tree’s roots , and thus cause the tree to be seriously destabilised. It could die or fall over. Another concern that I have with root barriers is that they interfere with the movement of water through the soil which may have other serious repercussions.
3.What is the best way of dealing with problem tree roots coming from neighbouring properties?
It is a tricky problem. Communication with your neighbours is essential. It is very foolish to sever roots which can destabilise trees. A tree through your or your neighbour’s house is a real danger.
There is also the problem of identifying the tree that the roots are coming from. There is a serious need for funding for research to create a tree root identification data base on trees commonly grown in Australia. We would be building on northern hemisphere data bases that have already been compiled.
If the problem of the offending tree roots cannot be worked out in a mutually satisfactory way with your neighbours, then you need to get the professional advice of a qualified arborist and then seek legal advice.
4. Can root damage be prevented by changes in building practices?
Certainly houses can be engineered to withstand problems caused by tree roots. The footings can be made larger and stronger using different materials, but many engineers are reluctant to design larger footings than those that have been traditionally used. It seems to be viewed as a horticultural problem. Certainly it would add to the cost of the building, but it is desirable to look at landscape and architecture in a holistic way. For the moment, species selection remains the most economical way of dealing with the problem.

Herb File

NAME: Common Agrimony (Agrimonia eupatoria)
DESCRIPTION: A perennial plant to 80cm tall, it has narrow, pointed, deeply serrated leaves. Slender spikes of yellow flowers are borne in summer and are followed by burr-like seed capsules. The flowers and foliage have a slightly apricot smell, but other species such as A. procera are more fragrant.
ORIGIN: Europe and the Near East
CULTIVATION: Agrimony grows in sun or semi-shade and is very tolerant of dryish, alkaline soil. The seeds need cold weather or stratification to germinate but will grow in a range of soil types.
USES: Agrimony is a traditional medicine with astringent and antibacterial qualities. It was often used to treat battle wounds and to treat urinary tract infections and a range of other ailments. The flowers are still harvested today and are used mainly to treat sore throats, acne and diarrhoea. A tea can be made from the flowers and leaves and in France these are combined with ordinary tea to make an aromatic brew. The whole plant, including the root, can be used as a source of a yellow dye. The colour is deeper if harvested later in autumn, and paler if harvested earlier.


NAME: All-Purpose herb, Five Seasons Herb, Mother of Herbs (Plectranthus aromaticus syn. Coleus aromaticus).
There is quite a deal of confusion about the name of this herb. Some sources indicate that P. aromaticus is synonymous with P. amboinicus, under which name this herb is often sold, but I suspect they are, in fact, two different species. P. amboinicus appears to be widely grown in the Gulf of Mexico area where is has the common name of Cuban Oregano or Mexican Oregano. P. aromaticus on the other hand appears to originate from the Seychelles and possibly India and Indonesia, where it is given the common name Indian Borage, among others. The plant identified in this picture seems to me to be closest to the plant I know as All Purpose Herb.
DESCRIPTION: This succulent herb has the typical four-cornered stem of the Lamiaceae family. The leaves are very thick and succulent, grey-green and hairy. The plant grows to around 50cm tall. The leaves are highly aromatic with a strong flavour of mixed herbs.
ORIGIN: Seychelles, India & South East Asia
CULTIVATION: The herb grows easily in a well-drained, semi-shaded position. It is frost tender and grows well in sub-tropical and tropical locations, but will do well in cooler climates if grown in a pot and brought indoors, or moved to a warm sheltered position in winter. Water only sparingly.
USES: The leaves are strongly flavoured and make an excellent addition to stuffings for meat and poultry. Finely chopped, they can also be used to flavour meat dishes, especially beef, lamb and game. The leaves have also had many traditional medicinal uses, especially for the treatment of coughs, sore throats and nasal congestion, but also for a range of other problems such as infections, rheumatism and flatulence. The herb is also used as a substitute for oregano in the food trade and food labelled "oregano-flavoured" may well contain this herb.

NAME: Aloe vera (Burn Plant)
DESCRIPTION: This mildly spiky succulent grows as a rosette. Clumps grow to about 60cm tall. The leaves are grey green and striated with pale markings. They are very thick and fleshy and ooze a clear, gel-like substance when cut or broken. It bears yellow tubular flowers in summer and is actually a member of the lily family.
ORIGIN: Most probably North Africa
CULTIVATION: Aloe vera is easily propagated from offsets from an established plant. It is possible to raise plants from seed which is sown in spring. The plant requires a well-drained position, protected from hot late afternoon sun and needs more water than many succulents. However it cannot cope with being water-logged, so plant in a raised bed or in a freely-draining pot.
USES: Aloe vera gel has always been highly prized as a treatment for minor burns. It can also be used to soothe sunburn and other skin afflictions. The gel is also used extensively in a wide range of cosmetics and skin-care products. While some claims are also made for its efficacy when taken internally, it is its use for healing and soothing the skin that is well documented.

NAME: Angelica (Angelica archangelica).
DESCRIPTION: Angelica is a large biennial, looking somewhat like an oversized celery plant. The greenish flowers are borne as umbels on very tall stems up to 2.5m (over 7ft) tall. Many seeds are produced that germinate readily soon after they are released.
ORIGIN: Northern Europe
CULTIVATION: Angelica requires a sheltered, shaded position and rich, moist soil. Sow fresh seed in autumn, or as soon as seed becomes available. The tall flower stems may require staking.
USES: All parts (including the roots) can be used, but the young stems are particularly flavoursome and aromatic in desserts and can add flavour interest to salads. Candied angelica stem is used in cakes and as a decoration, and angelica essence is used in making liqueurs such as Chartreuse. The plant was valued for its medicinal properties in Medieval times as a treatment for various infections, indigestion and flatulence.

NAME: Anise (Pimpinella anisum)
DESCRIPTION: Anise is an annual herb, growing to about 50cm. The new leaves are rounded while the older leaves are deeply serrated and feathery. The stems are grooved and brittle. The white, flattened flower umbels appear in summer and are followed by small seeds (aniseed) that smell and taste like liquorice.
ORIGIN: Egypt and the Middle East
CULTIVATION: Plant seeds directly where they are to grow in spring and again in autumn in mild areas. Soil should be light and well-drained. Add lime if the soil is acid. Choose a sunny, protected spot. Water well in dry weather. Anise and coriander are good companion plants.
USES: Ground aniseed is used to flavour confectionary, breads and cakes, vegetables, stewed fruits, cheese dishes and liqueurs. Anise leaves can be used in salads. Anise tea was traditionally used as an aid to digestion and aniseed is a favourite flavouring for cough mixtures and throat lozenges. The Ancient Romans served a cake containing aniseed at the end of large banquets, especially weddings, to aid digestion and relieve flatulence. These cakes were the forerunners of our traditional wedding cakes.

NAME: Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum) DESCRIPTION: Sweet Basil is a deliciously aromatic annual herb that grows to about 70cm. The stem is soft and succulent and the leaves bright green. Small white to purple flowers appear in autumn. There are many other forms of basil including Bush Basil (Ocimum minimum), Thai Basil (Ocimum basilicum), Greek Basil (Ocimum obovatum), and cultivars such as the purple-leafed 'Dark Opal', 'Tangy Lemon' and 'Spicy Globe'. ORIGIN: India
CULTIVATION: Sow seeds in November or early December or purchase seedlings. Choose the sunniest part of the garden. Soil should be light and well-drained. Add a little lime when the bed is being prepared. As seedlings grow, pinch out regularly to create a compact plant. Harvesting the leaves regularly for culinary use will also keep the plants nice and bushy. If drying, harvest before the plants flower in autumn.
USES: Basil is a most delicious herb, especially teamed with tomatoes. (It also grows well near tomatoes.) It lends great flavour to meaty pasta sauces, chicken and vegetable dishes and salads. It is a major ingredient in pesto. The plant emits a wonderful aroma in the garden when watered. As a medicinal remedy it was used to treat maladies of the major organs and also used to tone the skin. Sacred Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum) is a sacred plant of the Hindus and offerings of basil leaves in Hindu homes are believed to protect the family.


NAME: Bay Tree (Laurus nobilis) also known as Sweet Bay or Bay Laurel
DESCRIPTION: The Bay Tree is a large evergreen tree which grows to approx. 15m. The leaves are dark green, tough and very aromatic. Sprays of little greenish-cream flowers appear in spring and are followed by small black berries.
ORIGIN: Mediterranean regions
CULTIVATION: The Bay Tree is known for its hardiness and adaptability. It prefers a well-drained position in full sun, though it will also grow in semi-shade. The plants are tolerant of drought, wind and salt-spray. They will self-sow very readily. Bay Trees respond well to pot culture and they are often used as topiary specimens. Heeled cuttings can be taken in spring. (Note: Be certain that you have the correct species. Don't confuse it with the Cherry Laurel which is toxic.)
USES: Bay leaves are used to flavour many meat and fish dishes and are a component of the traditional French seasoning bouquet garni (along with thyme, parsley and marjoram). Dried leaves are most commonly used. Bay oil was used to treat bruises and rheumatism. In ancient Rome and Greece, a wreath of bay leaves was used as a high honour for heroes and scholars - thus the terms "resting on one's laurels" and "poet laureate".

NAME: Bergamot (Monarda didyma)DESCRIPTION: One of the sweetest-smelling herbs, bergamot is an attractive herbaceous perennial and grows to around 1.2m tall. The leaves are pointed and serrated. The appealingly ragged pom-pom clusters of tubular flowers are pink, mauve or red. They are very popular with bees and nectar-seeking birds.
ORIGIN: North America
CULTIVATION: Choose a shaded areas that receives a little early morning sun. The plant likes moist, but well-drained soil with plenty of organic matter added. Mulch well. Propagate by division or by seed sown in seed trays in spring. It will also grow from cuttings. Cut back to the ground after flowering. The plant will regenerate in spring.
USES: The leaves and flowers can be used in salads and the leaves make an aromatic tea. (Bergamot flavouring used in Earl Grey tea actually comes from the rind of the Bergamot Orange Citrus bergamia). Bergamot is also a valuable addition to pot pourri.

NAME: Borage (Borago officinalis)
DESCRIPTION: A tall (to 1m) soft-stemmed herb with bristly stems and large hairy leaves. The flowers are brilliantly blue and star shaped.
ORIGIN: Syria
CULTIVATION: Borage is one of the few herbs that prefer a semi-shaded spot, though it will grow in full sun. It needs shelter from strong winds as it is easily blown over. Soil should be moist, loose and friable. Seeds germinate in all seasons except very cold winters. The plant is an annual but self-seeds easily.
USES: Leaves have a fresh cucumber flavour and can be used in salads (use young leaves), drinks and in soups. An infusion of the leaves makes a refreshing tea. The flowers can be added to salads and make beautiful crystallised decorations for cakes and desserts. The flowers are highly attractive to bees and traditionally were symbolic of courage. Embroidered bees and borage flowers were often used to decorate the scarves of knights going into battle.


NAME: Calendula (Calendula officinalis)
DESCRIPTION: Calendula is an annual plant to around 60cm tall with branched leafy stems. It bears large bright yellow or orange single or double daisy flowers from winter to summer.
ORIGIN: Southern Europe
CULTIVATION: Calendula grows very easily from seed sown from autumn to spring. The plant requires a well-drained position in full sun and it is quite drought tolerant. Fertilise with a complete fertilizer. Spent flowers should be dead-headed to promote further blooming.
USES: As well as being a very attractive ornamental plant, calendula has long been valued for its medicinal properties, especially for its soothing effects on skin complaints such as eczema and itching. The brightly coloured petals are used as a garnish and sparingly in salads. The petals are a source of yellow-orange dye used in the food industry.

NAME: Caraway (Carum carvi)
DESCRIPTION: Caraway is a biennial plant to less than 1m tall with fine feathery leaves and umbels of white flowers like flattened parasols. The flowers are followed by the curved, ridged seeds which are the most popular part of the plant. They have an interesting sharp flavour with citrus overtones. The long white roots and the leaves can also be eaten.
ORIGIN: Europe and parts of Western Asia
CULTIVATION: Caraway is grown from seed sown in autumn or spring. Seedlings do not respond well to transplanting so sow them where they are to grow and thin later to about 25cm apart. In mild climates they can be grown in full sun but semi-shade is preferable in most parts of Australia. The plants usually take two years to complete their life cycle but this can vary. The plants require ample water. If the seed is to be collected the stems should be cut when they just begin to yellow. Hang them upside down to dry with paper bags to catch the seed as it is released.
USES: Caraway has been used both medicinally and in cuisine for thousands of years. It is perhaps best known for its use in caraway seed cake, popular in Britain. The seed can be used in a variety of breads, pastries and cakes, in cooked fruit dishes and in steamed and baked vegetables. It is also used to flavour some sausages and other meats and is the flavouring used in the liqueur, Kümmel. Young leaves can be added to salads and chopped and sprinkled into soups. The root can be eaten as a vegetable or added to other dishes. Caraway is useful as an aid to digestion and to relieve flatulence.

NAME: Catnip (Nepeta cataria)
DESCRIPTION: A small perennial growing up to 1 tall, it has soft grey-green, hairy, aromatic leaves and white (or pink or lavender) flowers in clusters along the ends of the stems in summer and autumn. It is highly attractive to many cats, including wild cats such as bobcats, mountain lions, leopards, etc.ORIGIN: Europe and Asia CULTIVATION: Catnip requires a sunny location and well-drained soil. It can be propagated from seed but germination will be enhanced by soaking the seed before sowing. Once established in the garden it will often self-seed. It can also be propagated by layering. After flowering, the bushes need a hard pruning so that they stay bushy and attractive, otherwise they tend to fall apart and look tatty.
USES: Traditionally, catnip was used as a medicinal herb to treat a wide range of ailments. It is still used today to make a calming tea, but it can have detrimental depressive effects if taken excessively. It’s main use these days is to entertain cats. It contains nepetalactone which affects many cats, making them intoxicated and silly. They will rub their faces on the bush and roll in the foliage blissfully. It is thought to have a similar effect to feline pheromones so they really do love it. It is often used to make cat toys. Conversely it is also useful as a rat and mouse repellent which is not really surprising if it smells like a frisky cat!

NAME: Cat's Whiskers or Java Tea (Orthosiphon aristatus)
DESCRIPTION: This pretty perennial herb grows to around 1m tall. The leaves are attractively toothed and slightly hairy. Spikes of white tubular flowers with exceptionally long white stamens (thus Cat's Whiskers) are borne for much of the year in warm climates.ORIGIN: South-east Asia & Northern Australia.CULTIVATION: An easily grown plant for warm climates, Cat's Whiskers requires a sunny, well-drained location. It is drought tolerant and adaptable to a range of soil types. The plant can be propagated by seed or by softwood cuttings.USES: Orthosiphon aristatus is a plant used in traditional medicine, especially for kidney complaints. A tea made from the leaves has diuretic properties. The plant is also an ornamental garden specimen.

NAME: Chamomile - Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) German chamomile (Matricaria recutita)
DESCRIPTION: Roman (or English) chamomile is a perennial herb with fine narrow leaves and white daisy flowers with yellow centres. It grows to around 30cm tall and spreads via runners to form a dense mat.
German chamomile is an annual herb with similar feathery foliage and white daisies with yellow centres. The flower base in this species is hollow unlike the Roman chamomile which is solid. It grows to around 80cm tall. Its essential oil is deep blue.
The word chamomile comes from the Greek khamaimelon meaning earth-apple and both species are highly aromatic with an apple perfume.
ORIGIN: Roman chamomile is endemic to a wide area in Europe, Asia & North Africa. German chamomile is native to Eastern Europe and the Near East.
CULTIVATION: Both types of chamomile require a sunny well-drained position, though will tolerate some shade. Seed planted in spring germinates readily. Roman chamomile is also easily propagated by division. Roman chamomile does best in light soils containing ample organic matter while the annual chamomile will do well even in fairly poor soil. Keep watered in hot, dry weather.USES: Chamomile has been highly valued for its many beneficial properties since ancient times and it is still used medicinally today. While the active ingredients in the two herbs differ, they are used for similar purposes. Both herbs have anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and sedative qualities and German chamomile has analgesic and anti-spasmodic properties as well. Chamomile tea has long been used as a calming drink and is recommended for those suffering from anxiety and irritable bowel syndrome. German chamomile has a more acceptable taste. The leaves are sweetly scented and were popular strewing herbs in medieval times. Roman chamomile is often used to grow aromatic chamomile lawns and the non-flowering prostrate cultivar of Roman chamomile ‘Treneague’ is often recommended for this purpose. A chamomile lawn will withstand moderate foot traffic but needs to be watered during extended dry periods.

NAME: Chaste Tree or Monk’s Pepper (Vitex agnus castus)
DESCRIPTION: This pretty deciduous bush or small tree belongs to the Verbena family. It grows to around 4m tall and has attractive marijuana-like, palmate foliage which is aromatic. Masses of violet, blue or white flower spikes are borne in summer and are highly attractive to bees and butterflies. See a picture. The flowers are followed by hard brown to black fruits containing 4 seeds. The fruit is used medicinally and in its ground form is called Agnus castus. It has a very bitter taste.
ORIGIN: Mediterranean areas and areas of western Asia
CULTIVATION: Chaste Tree can be propagated by seed sown in spring or by layering or cuttings. It will grow in sun or shade and is drought tolerant.
USES: The use of Agnus castus goes back to ancient times and Hippocrates recorded its use. It was used to stop haemorrhaging and the herb’s value as a treatment for a range of menstrual problems such as PMS became established and it is still used for this purpose today. Its other traditional use was as an anaphrodisiac (ie the opposite of aphrodisiac) which reduces libido. This gave it its common names of Chaste Tree and Monk’s Pepper for obvious reasons. Its useful for this purpose is now discounted. This herb should not be taken by pregnant women. Apart from its medicinal value, it is an attractive garden specimen.


NAME: Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium)
DESCRIPTION: A fragile biennial herb that is generally treated as an annual. It has fine fern-like foliage that resembles parsley but has a subtle aniseed flavour. The stems are brittle. Flowers are white and borne in umbels in summer. The flowers are followed by longish, narrow seeds
ORIGIN: The Mediterranean and western Asia
CULTIVATION: Chervil is grown from seed sown in early spring or autumn. Sow the seed where the plants are to grow and carefully thin out later. As the plant does not cope well with heat, autumn plantings are preferred in most areas of Australia. The plant will not thrive in full sun and a semi-shaded location is needed, though plenty of winter sun is desirable. A position in the dappled shade of deciduous trees is perfect. The soil needs to be rich with organic matter and kept moist. Alternatively, grow chervil in a pot. The plants have very pretty foliage. After flowering the plants die, so remove flower stems as soon as they appear to prolong the life of the plant. If some flowers are left to mature, the plants will self-seed readily.
USES: Chervil is one of the ingredients in the classic French seasoning fines herbes along with tarragon, parsley and chives. It should be used fresh and added just in the last few minutes of cooking to preserve the flavour. It is particularly good when added to soups, egg and vegetable dishes (including salads) but the subtle flavour also complements fish and chicken. The herb has also been valued traditionally as a medicinal herb, primarily as a purification aid.

NAME: Chicory or Witloof (Chicorium intybus)
DESCRIPTION: A many-branched tall shrub to 1.5m, chicory has large lower leaves that are club-shaped and smaller upper leaves with blue daisy flowers along the bristly stems. It has sharp-tasting young leaves and very bitter old ones. The large white root can be roasted and ground as a substitute for coffee.
ORIGIN: Europe
CULTIVATION: Choose a sunny, well-drained location to which organic material and a complete fertiliser have been added. Sow seeds in spring where they are to grow and thin out later. To make the leaves more palatable, the roots of established plants (foliage removed) are dug up and replanted into deep boxes of moist medium. As the "witloof" grows up through the sand the leaves are blanched and the flavour is much milder.
USES: Very young leaves can be used in salads where they add a piquant bitterness and blanched witloof can be used either in salads or as a cooked vegetable. Traditionally the herb was used as a health tonic, especially to aid liver function and was also applied externally to cure a range of ailments. It was also used in love potions.

NAME: Chives (Allium schoenoprasum)
DESCRIPTION: Chives grow as grassy clumps. The round, hollow foliage has a mild onion flavour and the plants make a pretty edging plant in the garden, especially if allowed to flower. The flowers are very attractive mauve pompoms.
ORIGIN: Possibly native to Britain, but grew extensively in Europe
CULTIVATION: Grow chives from seed sown in spring or in autumn in areas where winters are mild. In cold climates the plants will become dormant over the winter. Clumps of bulbs can be divided in winter and this should be done every few years to prevent clumps becoming congested and unthrifty. Do not allow plants used for the kitchen to flower - nip off all flowering stems.
USES: Pick chives stems from the base and use fresh in egg, chicken and vegetable dishes and in soups and sauces. Freeze in iceblocks or make into chive butter to preserve them. They lose much of their flavour if dried. Chives are often combined with ornamentals such as roses to mask the smell of the plants and confuse pests such as aphids.

NAME: Comfrey (Symphytum officinale)
DESCRIPTION: Comfrey is a clump-forming perennial to 1.2 m tall, with large, matt, hairy leaves on strong stems. It is a member of the Borage family. The rhizome sends up tall stalks bearing small clusters of tubular flowers in shades ranging from purple to pale yellow and white.
ORIGIN: Europe and Western Asia
CULTIVATION: Comfrey is grown from seed and may be propagated by division or from root cuttings. It will grow in most soils, but prefers a damp position preferably with some dappled shade. It spreads readily.
USES: This herb has traditionally been used as a poultice for sprains, bruises and wounds, and was also believed to speed the healing of broken bones. Poultices are made from the thick, brown, allantoin-rich, mucilaginous roots of the plant, although the dried rhizome and roots, mixed with water, can also be used. The poultice should not be applied to broken skin. Comfrey must not be taken internally as it can cause liver damage. Its vitamin and mineral-rich leaves do, however, make a good addition to the compost heap.